Historical Era

The Yuan Dynasty (1271, 1368) was a dynasty established by ethnic minorities in Chinese history. It was founded in 1271 by the Mongolian ruler Kublai Khan (i.e., Yuan Shizu), and was named Dayuan. It was established in Dadu in 1272 (now Beijing). In 1279, the Southern Song Dynasty was destroyed and the unity of the north and south was completed. In 1368, Zhu Yuanzhang established the Ming Dynasty. In the same year, he overthrew the Yuan government that moved north and moved north to the north, retreating to the north of the desert, confronting the Ming Dynasty. It is known in history as the Northern Yuan Dynasty.

Before the establishment of the Yuan Dynasty, many Mongolian tribes in the Mongolian Plateau area were originally subordinates of the Jin Dynasty. With the gradual decline of the Jin Dynasty, Mongolian power began to grow and gradually escaped from the rule of the Jin Dynasty's regime in the fourth year of Jin Taihe (1204), the Mongolian leader Temujin unified the Mongolian tribes of the Mongolian Plateau through a brutal war in the sixth year of Taihe (1206 AD). Temujin was elected by various tribes as Genghis Khan, and established the regime in the north of the desert, with the country's name being the Great Mongolian Kingdom.(YekeMngghlUlus), that is, after the Great Mongol Empire established the Great Mongol Kingdom, it continuously launched wars of conquest to expand its territory, destroyed the Western Liao Dynasty in 1217, and in 1219, it attacked Khwarezm in the west, and attacked until the Volga River Basin returned east in 1225, and destroyed the Western Xia in 1227. Genghis Khan also died of illness in the expedition against the Western Xia. The foreign war of the Mongolian army was conquering in order to reduce the Mongolian army'sThe Mongolian army adopted cruel and barbaric policies against the enemy during the war. A large number of areas that dared to resist bravely were destroyed. After the city was broken, the population was massacred and enslaved. Countless property was plundered and damaged. The result of the war was to establish a huge empire with unprecedented territory, largest population size and economic output in the world, and a strong influence. It basically achieved world unity and a pattern of harmony in the world, which had a great impact on later generations.

The founding of the Yuan Dynasty, the great Khan of the Mongolian Empire, died in Sichuan in 1259. At the age of 52, his fourth brother Kublai Khan and his seventh brother Alibuge began to compete for the throne of Khan. In March 1260, Alibuge passed by Hara Helin, the capital of the Mongolian Empire with the support of most Mongolian orthodox factions such as the clan king Asutai.At the same time, Kublai Khan joined the Southern Song Dynasty to return to Kaiping (now Duolun, Inner Mongolia). With the support of Confucian officials in the Central Plains and some Mongolian princes, he called himself the Great Khan. In April 1260, Kublai Khan established the Secretariat and was in charge of state affairs. In May 1260, Kublai Khan issued the "Ascendance Edict" Act and established the Yuan Dynasty. Because Kublai Khan gathered on his own in the Han area of ​​the Central Plains to call him Khan and promoted Han laws, it obviously violated the Mongolian tradition, which aroused strong dissatisfaction among Alibuge and the orthodox Mongolian factions. Kublai Khan and Alibuge immediately launched a war of Khan for four years. Genghis Khan was not until 1264. Alibuge was defeated and surrendered. Kublai Khan designated him as a master, but he promoted Han laws.But the claim caused dissatisfaction among many Mongolian nobles and refused to submit to the Kublai Khanate, which led to hostility among several other Mongolian Khanate countries. Kublai Khan's regime only included China (not China in the entire sense of today) and the Mongolian Plateau region.

In the eighth year of Zhiyuan (1271 AD), Kublai Khan issued the "Decree of the Country" Act, taking the meaning of "The Great Qianyuan" in the "Book of Changes", and officially established the country as Yuan. This is the watershed between the Mongolian Empire's regime from a world-wide unified empire to the Central Plains dynasty. The Mongolian regime previously implemented a very nomadic plundering rule over the Central Plains region. The Central Plains region was only part of its territory. It was not until Kublai Khan that it transformed into a dynasty with China as its main occupation. Before that, the name of the Yuan Dynasty had not appeared, so the establishment of the Dayuan should be calculated from this.

In the ninth year of Zhiyuan (1272 AD), under the planning of Liu Bingzhong, the capital of Dadu (now Beijing) was established in the Central Plains (now Beijing) in the 13th year of Zhiyuan (1276 AD), the Yuan army captured Lin'an (now Hangzhou City, Zhejiang Province), and captured the 6-year-old Emperor Gong of Song and Empress Dowager Xie in the 16th year of Zhiyuan (1279 AD). The Yuan army eliminated the last resistance of the Southern Song Dynasty in the Yashan naval battle. Lu Xiufu carried the 9-year-old young emperor Zhao Bing and died in the sea. China (Southern Song) was destroyed.

Afterwards, the Yuan army attacked some surrounding areas, such as Vietnam and Japan. Among them, the most famous war to conquer Japan, the Goryeo who built warships for Kublai Khan intentionally built and designed ships of extremely poor quality were only the main reason why Kublai Khan's Mongolian fleet was buried in the belly of fish.

After the Yuan Dynasty's unification, the four-class people divided the people under their regime into four levels: Mongolia, Semu, Han and Southern people, and stipulated that these four-class people had a series of unequal treatment in various aspects such as officials, lawsuits, and imperial examinations. This is a ironclad evidence for the entire Yuan Dynasty's implementation of national oppression policies.

The Mongolians ranked first among all the people, and were from the Yuan Dynasty.

Semu people ranked second in the second place after the Mongols, mainly referring to Western Regions, such as Qincha, Tangwu, Weiwuer, Huihui, etc.

The Han people are the third class, referring to the Han, Khitan, Jurchen people in the Jin Dynasty north of the Huai River, as well as the Yunnan (Dali) people who were conquered by the Mongolian earlier. The Goryeo people in the northeast are also Han people.

The Southern people are the fourth class, also known as the barbarians, and they are newly affiliated to the people, referring to the various ethnic groups in the former Southern Song Dynasty who were finally conquered by the Yuan Dynasty (people south of the Huaihe River)

In the mid-Yuan Yuan Dynasty, the 11th year of the Great Destiny (1307), Emperor Chengzong of Yuan Dynasty appointed Confucius as the King of Dacheng's Supreme Saint Wenxuan, and various titles were granted to Confucius' family and disciples.

In the 11th year of Dade (1307), Chengzong died. Haishan, the grandson of the former crown prince Zhenjin, was located in Shangdu of Yuan Dynasty. He appointed his younger brother Aiyulibada as the crown prince for Yuan Dynasty Wuzong. He agreed that his brother would end up with his brother. At the same time, he agreed that after Aiyulibada's death, the throne would return to the son of Wuzong, Heshila.

In the fourth year of Zhida (1311), Renzong ascended the throne, but violated the previous agreement and appointed Heshila as the King of Zhou, ordered him to leave Yunnan, and changed his son Shuodbala to the crown prince.

In the second year of Yanyou (1315), Emperor Renzong of Yuan Dynasty ordered the restoration of the imperial examination system, and defined the Cheng-Zhu Neo-Confucianism as the main content of the examination. From then on, Cheng-Zhu Neo-Confucianism became the official thought of the Yuan Dynasty (and subsequent dynasties).

In the seventh year of Yanyou (1320), Renzong died and Shuoder Bala ascended the throne, and he was Emperor Yingzong of Yuan Dynasty.

In the third year of Zhizhi (1323), Emperor Yingzong of Yuan ordered the compilation and promulgation of the official code of the Yuan Dynasty, "The Great Yuan Tong System", with a total of 2,539 articles.

In the third year of the Yuan Dynasty, Kublai Khan (12151294), Emperor Yingzong was on his way from the south and stationed in Nanpo. He was killed by powerful ministers Tiemu and others to plot against the rebellion and supported the former crown prince Zhenjin, who was guarding Mobei at that time, ascended the throne[2], and changed the reign of Emperor Taiding, and was the Emperor Taiding.

In the fifth year of Taiding (1328), Emperor Taiding died Prime Minister Dailasha in Shangdu and the son of Emperor Taiding Alajiba was the emperor. At the same time, the old minister of Emperor Wuzong of Yuan Dynasty, Yàn Timur and the prime minister of Henan Province, Boyan, secretly sent envoys to Mobei and Jiangnan respectively, and welcomed the result of King Heshila and his brother Tutemur. Tutemur first went to Dadu of Yuan, and then proclaimed himself emperor in the first year of Tianli (1328). He Shila arrived in Helin for Yuan Wenzong and Heshila arrived in Helin. He also announced his ascension, which was that Emperor Mingzong of Yuan and Mingzong was willing to abdicate and regarded his brother as emperor. The two met in the south of Shangdu. After Emperor Wenzong poisoned Emperor Mingzong to become emperor.

In the third year of Zhishun (1332), Emperor Wenzong issued an edict to establish the son of Mingzong as the emperor and the powerful minister of Emperor Yimur in order to control the government, he deliberately gave up the eldest son and established the young man, and made Yilin Zhiban the emperor. He was the Emperor Ningzong of Yuan, but Ningzong died of illness before he ascended the throne. His brother Tuohuantemuer was immediately appointed, and he was the Emperor Shun.

In the third year of Zhizheng (1343), Emperor Huizong of Yuan Dynasty ordered the compilation of the history of Liao, Jin, and Song dynasties, and was completed in 1345.

Overview The Yuan Dynasty was the vastest dynasty in Chinese history and one of the strongest national dynasties. In terms of the vastness of the territory, only the later Qing Dynasty could be compared with the Yuan Dynasty. The Qing Dynasty was also a dynasty ruled by ethnic minorities.

The territory of the Yuan Dynasty was: crossing Yinshan in the north, quicksand in the west, Liaodong in the east, crossing the sea surface in the south, and not reaching the Han and Tang dynasties in the south, and crossing the Han and Tang dynasties in the northwest ("Yuan History·Geographical Records") including the entire territory of Mongolia, Russia's Siberia region and Thailand. Some places in northern Myanmar are twice as large as those in today's China's territory.

Wei Yuan's "New History of Yuan Dynasty" says: The Yuan Dynasty has its own world, its territory is vast, its sea and grain are rich, and its military and material resources are more powerful than that of the Han and Tang Dynasties. The people of the Yuan Dynasty were full of pride for the prosperity of their own country.

In "Preface to the Remaining of Liu Guiyin in Luling", Yu Ji commented on contemporary literati: The country is vast and has never risen in history and takes advantage of its majestic spirit to make literature, then there is Duke Wen of Yao.

Guan Yunshi praised in the Sanqu "Shuangtu·Xinshuiling·Yenriday of the Imperial Capital": The country is rich, the world is always happy to be loyal, filial, and benevolent, and the great literary and martial arts are prosperous, and the great achievements are prosperous.... Compared with Tang and Yu, the great Yuan Dynasty has never been seen in ancient and modern times.

As a regime established by the Mongolian people, after conquering the vast areas of Europe, Asia and Africa, the Mongolian Empire also actively or passively absorbed and collected a variety of civilization strengths in the field of cultural and ideological fields. Therefore, the entire Yuan Dynasty was full of disputes over the dominant position of Han law and Semu law. As an important dynasty in Chinese history, the Yuan Dynasty not only played a role in the history of Chinese culture, but also made new leaps in many fields, promoting the development of China's diverse and integrated culture, creating a new situation of comprehensive exchange and integration of cultures of various ethnic groups in China, and making important contributions to the prosperity and development of Chinese culture.

The unprecedented prosperity of economic and cultural exchanges between China and the West in the Yuan Dynasty accelerated the introduction of Chinese gunpowder, compass, and printing technology into Arabia and Europe, and promoted the civilization process in these regions. Arab medicine, astronomy, agricultural technology, European mathematics, metal crafts, South Asian sculpture art, etc. into China, promoting the enrichment and development of ancient Chinese culture in the Yuan Dynasty. The large amount of information, wide spread scope, and great influence on future history are all unprecedented in human history. It can be said that the achievements of Chinese and Western civilizations have emerged in a comprehensive sharing situation for the first time.

The territory of the Yuan Dynasty After the Yuan Dynasty unified the country, the territory of its prosperity was: to Mongolia in the north, Siberia (some say it reaches the Arctic Ocean), to the South China Sea, to the southwest, including Tibet, Yunnan, to the east of Xinjiang in the northwest, to the outer Xing'an Mountains, the total area of ​​the Yuan Dynasty in the Okhotsk Sea exceeded 12 million square kilometers; if it arrived at the Arctic Ocean, it exceeded 22 million square kilometers.

The whole country is divided into the Secretariat and 11 Secretariats, as well as the Tubo region under the jurisdiction of the General Affairs Office (renamed Xuanzhengyuan in 1288).

The central organization of the political and military system of the Yuan Dynasty: Secretariat, led six ministries, and presided over the national government affairs

Privy Council, in charge of military affairs

Censorate, responsible for inspector

Local administrative agencies: Province, Province is a dispatched agency that the court appointed important officials to various places to exercise the power of the Secretariat. The abbreviation of the Secretariat is, which will be introduced in detail later.

Military organization: Guards, the army that is directly controlled by the emperor or trusted ministers to serve as the defense of the capital (Dadu and Shangdu) is the guards' personal army.

More than thirty guards, the commander or commander of the guards, belonging to the Privy Council

The garrison army is responsible for guarding the troops across the country, including the Mongolian army, the Red Army of the Ma, the Han army, the New Affiliated Army, etc.

As Mongolia's power expanded to West Asia, Europe and China in the Yuan Dynasty made exchanges more frequent and technological exchanges more rapidly. The Yuan Dynasty's economy was still dominated by agricultural economy. Production technology, land reclamation area, grain production, water conservancy and cotton planting all exceeded the previous generations. Due to the canal transportation, the smooth flow of sea transportation and the popularity of paper money, the Yuan Dynasty was the first dynasty in Chinese history to use paper money as a circulating currency, and established the world's earliest complete banknote circulation system, more than 400 years earlier than Europe (the excessive issuance of paper money at the end of the Yuan Dynasty caused inflation), and business also flourished greatly in the Yuan Dynasty, making it one of the richest countries in the world at that time.

Science and Culture The Yuan Dynasty's culture, art and science and technology have achieved high achievements. Astronomy ranks among the most advanced in the world at that time, and mathematics and medicine are also among the world's advanced. Scientist Guo Shoujing revised the new calendar in 1276 and formulated the "Shiji Calendar" in 4 years. It has been passed for more than 360 years. It was the most advanced calendar in the world at that time. He also served as the Dushui Supervisor, responsible for the repair of the canal from the Yuan Dynasty to Tongzhou (later named Tonghui River by Kublai Khan.), coupled with several other major projects such as the Jeju River and Huitong River, the final formation of today's Grand Canal, with a total length of more than 1,700 kilometers; opera and novel creation flourished, and a group of excellent playwrights such as Guan Hanqing emerged. Yuanqu became the excellent literary heritage of China, known as Tang poetry and Song lyrics. Chinese culture is the crystallization of the wisdom of the people of all ethnic groups in China. The collision of grassland culture and Yellow River culture has once aroused countless brilliant sparks, providing inexhaustible impetus for the continuous development of Chinese culture.

China has been a multi-ethnic country since ancient times. Each nation has contributed to the progress and development of Chinese civilization in different historical periods. The Yuan Dynasty refers to the feudal regime established by Mongolian rulers between 1206 and 1368 AD. In the Chinese dynasty sequence, although the regime existed for a short time, its impact on the historical development of China was extremely important.

Promoting the process of China's diverse and integrated cultural pattern at the beginning of the 13th century, the Mongolian rulers successively eliminated the Western Xia, Western Liao, Jin Dynasty, Dali, Tubo, Southern Song Dynasty and other regimes, completing the unprecedented unification of multi-ethnic countries, forming a favorable environment conducive to the cultural exchange and development of various ethnic groups.

The coexistence of multi-ethnic culture in China has been further affirmed. Since the Spring and Autumn Period, the theory of Xia Yi formed in the Central Plains has emphasized that respecting Xia and expelling barbarians and transforming barbarians with Xia and forming obstacles to equal exchanges among all ethnic groups. For example, the Zhengrun theory, which has a great influence in the field of history, advocates that the four barbarians cannot be orthodox, and the regime that has been dominated by the northern ethnic groups is parallel to those who steal the country and usurp the country, and incorporates it into an unorthodox sequence. In fact, it has been excluded from other ethnic political cultures. Since the Yuan Dynasty also belongs to the ethnic minority regime that entered the Central Plains, in order to establish the legitimacy of its own status, the rulers need to work hard to reverse this traditional concept. When compiling the history of "Liao", "Song", and "Jin", the president of the three historical capitals, the right prime minister of the Secretariat, Tuotuo, dispelled the public opinion and said arbitrarily: "The three countries are each with orthodox, and each is in their year name." The congressmen then stopped.This move ended the orthodox debate over more than 200 years since the fall of the Liao Dynasty. At the same time, in the history of Chinese historiography, it also affirmed the legal status of the various ethnic regimes in the name of the central government. Its significance is as follows: This decision determines the basic principle of treating the Three Histories with equality. It conforms to the objective reality of China being a multi-ethnic country, and also in the historical situation where the Liao, Jin and Song dynasties do not belong to each other. Therefore, it is correct, so Tutuo's contribution to the Three Histories cannot be ignored.

The exchange of cultures of various ethnic groups has accelerated the ethnic policies and cultural policies implemented by the rulers of the Yuan Dynasty, and the integration and development of various ethnic cultures in ancient China has emerged. Mongolian characters were born during this period and have been used to this day. The first historical work in the history of the northern nomadic peoples, "Mongolian Secret History", was born; in the history of Chinese feudal dynasties, the ethnic composition of the Yuan Dynasty government officials was the most complex; the Yuan Dynasty was also the first dynasty in the history of the unified dynasty in China to use both multi-ethnic characters; "History of Liao", "History of Song" and "History of Jin" are the only historical books in the 24 histories, and they were compiled by multi-ethnic historians. They also set a precedent for the history of one dynasty in the history of Chinese historiography, and preserved precious historical and cultural heritage for later generations; Central Plains culture has been widely circulated in the ethnic areas of the border, and Confucian classic works have been translated.Translated into Mongolian publishing, schools that teach Confucian culture appeared for the first time in remote areas such as Mobei and Yunnan; for the first time, a national minority language and writing education institutions, Mongolian Imperial College and Hui Hui Imperial College, established by the central government, a large number of Chinese writers emerged among Mongolian, Khitan, Jurchen and Semu people; the cultures of various ethnic groups in the Western Regions were further spread to the Central Plains society, Tibetan Buddhism was spread in the Central Plains, and the kapok planting and textile technology of Hainan Li people promoted the development of China's cotton textile industry; under the relaxed political and cultural atmosphere, the integration between various ethnic groups also entered another climax period, Khitan, Jurchen, Dangxiang and other ethnic groups quietly integrated into the Mongolian, Han and other surrounding ethnic groups, and a brand new ethnic group Hui Hui was born on the land of China. For the harmonious coexistence of various cultures in the Yuan Dynasty, medieval EuropeOdolek, one of the four major travelers, once called it the greatest miracle in the world with emotion

It can be seen from this that the establishment of the Yuan Dynasty broke the artificial cultural shielding phenomenon that had occurred in history before. The reality of Chinese cultural diversity was widely recognized. The concept of the world as a family and the whole world was deeply rooted in the hearts of the people. The diversified pattern turned into a fact-compatible and pragmatic cultural policy in a unified environment. It promoted the development of Chinese feudal culture. Compared with most Chinese feudal dynasties, the ideological and cultural concepts during the Mongolian and Yuan dynasties had two characteristics: one is compatibility, and the other is not to emphasize empirical literature. Under the guidance of this idea, the cultural environment of the Yuan Dynasty showed compatible and pragmatic characteristics.

The cultural compatibility of the Yuan Dynasty is mainly reflected in the following aspects: it is the only dynasty in ancient Chinese history that did not propose a system of taboo from an official perspective; it is one of the dynasties with the least ideological and cultural imprisonment system in Chinese feudal history. At present, no examples of people in the Yuan Dynasty suffering misfortune due to speech have been found. According to statistics, the cultural ban in the Yuan Dynasty was only one-tenth of that of the Ming and Qing dynasties; it is also the only dynasty in Chinese feudal history that clearly proposed freedom of religious belief. At that time, all the major religions in the world had activity places and believers in China, which was probably a unique cultural phenomenon in the entire Eurasian continent at that time.

A compatible cultural atmosphere provides a good environment for the development of Chinese culture. Major events in the history of drama and literature. Yuanqu (Sanqu and Zaju) was formed in this environment. Modern people ranked Yuanqu with Tang poetry and Song lyrics, and regarded it as a treasure of Chinese culture. Some scholars believe that the reason why Yuanqu was born and prospered in the Yuan Dynasty was mainly due to the influence of the ethics and morals of northern ethnic minorities and the relaxation of cultural policies in the Yuan Dynasty, which enabled social thoughts to be free from the constraints of traditional norms. Free creation

The social status of Confucian culture further improved Confucius was named the King of the Great Saint Wenxuan in the Yuan Dynasty, making his reputation reach an unparalleled level, and famous scholars such as Mencius also received high titles; the Yuan Dynasty set up a special class of Confucian households in Chinese history for the first time in Chinese history to protect intellectuals and those who wish to be disciples were exempted from chores. The popular education of the people in the Yuan Dynasty exceeded that of the previous dynasties, with more than 400 academies and more than 24,400 schools at the highest number of prefectures and counties. Mr. Chen Yuan commented on the development of Confucian culture in the Yuan Dynasty: It took only a hundred years to discuss the Yuan Dynasty... If it started from the Han Gao and the Tang Taishu, and as of the 100th year of the Han and Tang Dynasties, and as of the 20th year of Qianlong, and not after the 20th year of Qianlong, then the prosperity of the Han, Tang and Qing academics would not be more than the Yuan Dynasty!

The spirit of pragmatism promoted the interaction between culture and social practice. The Mongolians in the Yuan Dynasty were in the rising stage of feudal society and had relatively urgent development requirements. Therefore, compared with the Song Dynasty, the pragmatic cultural spirit of the Yuan Dynasty was very prominent. Kublai Khan advocated that those who responded to heaven should be sincere, while those who saved the people should be profitable, emphasizing the implementation of morality and not vain literature. Based on this, he proposed that the imperial examination was absurd, what I did not take, abolished the imperial examination system, emphasized talent in talent selection, rather than simply winning by literature.;Some scientific and cultural concerns about national economy and people's livelihood have also developed rapidly with the support of the government: a series of large-scale astronomical measurement activities organized by the government have made China at the world's advanced level in many astronomy fields (such as scientific data on the angle of the zodiac, the number of stars, calendars, etc.); in terms of geography, the "Da Yuan Yitong Zhi" was the first for the official editing of the general geography of China, and it is also the largest official editing of the geography in ancient Chinese history; there were 160 local criterion edited in the Yuan Dynasty, which exceeded the Song Dynasty;

The Yuan government also organized the first field scientific research on the source of the Yellow River in Chinese history; in terms of agricultural technology and popularization of agriculture, crops from north to south, agricultural technologies (such as production tools) were widely exchanged, cotton cultivation was learned from each other, and many crops were popularized in the Yuan Dynasty, and many crops were popularized. The government strengthened the summary and popularization of agricultural science and technology. The "Agriculture and Sects" edited by the Ministry of Agriculture and Sects" was the earliest comprehensive agricultural book to guide agricultural production in the country. Lu Mingshan's "Agriculture and Sects and Sects and Sects" was the oldest in the Chinese Yueling Agricultural Book, and Wang Zhen's "Agriculture and Sects and Sects" was the first agricultural book in China to conduct a systematic study of agriculture in the country; on the basis of the invention of movable type printing in the Song Dynasty, the Yuan Dynasty invented metal movable type, wheel typing method and color printing.In addition, the Yuan regime also attached great importance to medicine, shipbuilding, ceramic manufacturing and water conservancy. In the Yuan Dynasty, traditional Chinese medicine developed greatly, and the four schools of Jin and Yuan dynasties emerged, especially China and Arabia, Persia and other places. This not only greatly promoted the major inventions of the Chinese and the widespread dissemination of traditional Chinese medicine knowledge, but also made the Arab and Persian medical classics that were at the leading level at that time brought China and translated into Chinese Arabic aromatic volatiles, nose drops, wine dew agents, oil agents and syrup agents, etc. have been widely promoted and applied in the secretary of the Yuan Dynasty, and many Arab works on medicine were preserved. Chinese traditional Chinese medicine was deeply influenced by these foreign medicines, especially Chinese medicine expanded.The connotation of traditional Chinese medicine is absorbed in large quantities, and the use of sea medicines sent by Arabs, Persians and even Indians

The Yuan Dynasty government set up Guanghuisi under the Imperial Hospital to take charge of Huihui medical affairs; in 1291 AD, Huihui Pharmaceutical Hospital was established in Dadu and Shangdu. The famous Huihui prescription was also from the Islamic state during the Yuan Dynasty. In addition, Hangzhou Muslims in the late Yuan Dynasty had begun to set up relatively formal hospitals to cure diseases for the Chinese people. The Yuan Dynasty was not only the peak of the development of ancient Chinese astronomy, but also the last golden period of Chinese mathematics. Chinese people used Arabic numerals. These wonderful numbers were gifts given to us by Muslims from China during the Yuan Dynasty. In 1957, in the ruins of Anxi Wangfu in Xi'an, archaeological team members discovered five blocks of cast Arabic numerals with evacuated iron blocks. Four of them were unearthed and were sandwiched in two neatly carved squares. This was a six-six magic square arranged using Arabic numerals. The sum of the numbers in the vertical, horizontal and diagonal lines was 111.

In China during the Yuan Dynasty, medicine emerged from the situation of eclectics and mutual communication on the basis of inheriting traditions, greatly enriching the content of medical knowledge.

"Huihui Prescription" (hereinafter referred to as "Prescription") is a large comprehensive Huihui medical classic in China (the author is unknown). It has 36 volumes. A few remaining copies can now be found in Beijing Library. The book is mostly written in Chinese, and it is mixed with many Arabic and Persian medical terms and Chinese transliteration. It can be seen from a few remaining copies. "Prescription" is a medical classic that includes internal medicine, surgery, gynecology, pediatrics, orthopedic injuries and dermatology. It has rich content and has a combination of Chinese and Western characteristics. Scholars who study Chinese medicine history infer from the remaining parts that "Prescription" has about 6,000 to 7,000 prescriptions, which is comparable to the ancient Chinese medicine book "Waitai Secrets" in Chinese medicine. According to the remaining parts, "Prescription" has about 6,000 to 7,000 prescriptions, and its value is comparable to the ancient Chinese medicine book "Waitai Secrets"

The Yuan Dynasty and the four major khanates made the political pattern of Eurasia after the 13th century. Many of the former regimes in East Asia, Central Asia and West Asia disappeared in an instant, and some parts of Europe were also included under the rule of the Mongolian Khanate. There is no doubt that the cruel wars and severe social turmoil brought great pain to the people of Eurasian countries. However, the objective positive impact of the war of conquest and the subsequent establishment of Mongolian regimes cannot be ignored. It has broken the barriers to economic and cultural exchanges between Eurasia and the open policy of Mongolian rulers to encourage trade, convenient and safe station transportation, which narrowed the distance between Eurasia, made the direct dialogue between various cultures a reality, and shortened the gap between Eurasia and the civilization process caused by unbalanced development and the geographical space and artificial closure.

Exchanges allowed China to understand the world, and the world also knew China. The mystery between the East and the West was unveiled. The history of world civilization has thus entered a new era. If we observe from the perspective of Chinese cultural history, the influence of the Mongolian and Yuan dynasties is mainly reflected in two aspects: promoting China's internationalization. In ancient Chinese history, the dynasties with the greatest influence on the outside were the Tang and Yuan dynasties. However, if we compare from the perspective of external influence, the number of countries and the international status, the Tang and Yuan dynasties were incomparable preferential trade policies, smooth trade routes, rich countries, and beautiful legends made the Yuan dynasty form a huge attraction to all sectors of society in the West and Arab world. Shangdu, Dadu, Hangzhou, Quanzhou, and Guangzhou have become the largest international urban color. Quanzhou Port has become the largest international foreign trade port traveler, merchant, and missionary.Scholars, government envoys and craftsmen came to China by land and sea. Some of them lived in China for a long time, and some also served as government officials. According to statistics, these people came from Persia, Iraq, Asu, Kangri, Syria, Morocco, Goryeo, Bhutan, Nepal, Delhi Sultanate, Poland, Hungary, the Principality of Ross, England, France, Italy, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Afghanistan and other countries. After returning to China, some people recorded their experiences in China. It was these travel notes that allowed Westerners to grasp the information of China and the East for the first time. A civilized and prosperous China truly displayed in front of the world. This information changed the understanding and understanding of the world. Academic circles generally believed that the works of Marco Polo and others had a crucial impact on the arrival of the Age of Discovery.

The Yuan Dynasty used the most prosperous cultural exchanges in ancient times. The countries and regions that carried out economic and trade exchanges through the Maritime Silk Road increased from more than 50 in the Song Dynasty to more than 140 sea routes to the African coast, and land routes directly to Western Europe. The unified environment created unprecedented conveniences for international and regional exchanges. It is known in history that those who are within a thousand miles are like being in a house; those who are within ten thousand miles are like leaving their neighbors. While a large number of Arabs and Europeans flock to the East, the Chinese have a broader vision. The understanding of neighboring countries, Central Asia, South Asia and Indian Ocean regions is clearer, and their footprints even extend to West Asia and Western Europe. People's understanding and introduction of the external world is no longer limited to hearsay, but mostly experiences personally, such as Wang Dayuan's book "A Brief History of the Islands and Barbarics", which recorded historical facts of the Indian Ocean coast and the South China Sea. They are all visited by people, and they are seen by their ears and eyes, and legends are not recorded.The book records hundreds of place names, as well as the dangerous mountains and rivers, climate and properties, character customs, economic and cultural interactions with our country, etc., and most of them are documents that have not been published by previous generations. There are also "Journey to the West", "Journey to the West", "Black Envoy", "Black Envoy", "Zhen La Temporary Records", etc., reflecting the new understanding of the external world and the broad cultural vision of the Chinese in the Yuan Dynasty.

The cultural diversity, historical status and importance of the Yuan Dynasty are unique ways of survival for mankind. They have a profound impact on social development and have a wide permeability. The civilization of a nation cannot be separated from the cultural development of high-level cultural development. The cultural heritage is the foundation of the prosperity and development of a nation. It maintains incomparable stability and continuity in social development, and becomes an irreplaceable force to promote and maintain social development mechanisms.

Chinese culture has a long history and excellent traditions, and is also an open system and a long road to human civilization. Chinese culture has many innovative and leading glory, and has enriched and developed itself through continuous exchanges with all ethnic groups in the world and learning.

The Mongolian Yuan culture is an important part of Chinese culture and a far-reaching development stage with a profound influence. The Mongolian Yuan period was the largest territory of China and also a glorious period of the great reunification of many ethnic groups. More than 40 large and small principalities were united in China. The princes and the Chinese territory have opened up infinite broad prospects for the diversification and integration of Chinese culture. The Mongolian Yuan culture absorbed the excellent culture of many ethnic groups in the Eurasian continent. It embraced all rivers and has significant diversity and unprecedented prosperity. As the center of Mongolian Yuan culture, it has an historical status that cannot be ignored and has a vast and far-reaching impact.

The development of human society always shows a state of twists and turns and spirals.The ancient civilizations of China, Greece, Egypt, India have developed to the end under the historical limitations of the time. Historical old people are staggering and marching.

In the 12th century AD, the ancient civilization developed by human beings had wandered for a long time. The princes, tribes, priests, dynasties, and dynasties of all ages divided and closed the country in different regions, fighting and killing, slaughtering, looting, and endless wars... Human civilization presents many confusions, and also longs for new vitality and development. The ancient scattered and declining historical situation is praying for a new unified and prosperous situation to replace it.

Mixed with bloody storms, the banner of civilization always struggles, trying to stand up staggeringly! Openness, communication, development, and prosperity have always been the common direction of mankind

The wheel of history seeks vitality in silence and slowness, and the road is long and arduous, and human beings are constantly searching up and down.

The emergence of the Mongolian Yuan Empire is another advancement on the road of human development. It is another exploration. According to the "Outline of the Golden History", the Eurasian continent in the twelve century had twelve countries that ravaged their people at that time. All of them were violent and unjust. The people could not bear the suffering. Genghis Khan Temujin, who destroyed the twelve countries by cutting them. Genghis Khan died in the 24th year of reign. Genghis Khan was destroyed forty years (Jia Jingyan, Zhu Feng translated "Outline of the Golden History of Mongolia" 212). The unified Yuan Dynasty, which spanned the two continents of Eurasia, broke the restrictions on the borders and boundaries between the various ethnic groups on the Eurasian continent, greatly facilitated the exchanges and material and cultural exchanges between the people of all ethnic groups in an unprecedentedly broad and vast region, and laid a solid foundation for the unity and common development of all ethnic groups in China.

The storm is about to come and the wind fills the building. The strong Mongolian whirlwind swept across thousands of troops like a sweeping mat, bringing a new pattern and a new scene to the Eurasian continent.

In the 12th century, the princes, tribes, principalities, and small courts of Eurasia, all large and small, closed their arms and divided the countries and plundered each other, and captured each other's development. The Mongolian whirlwind brought about by Genghis Khan swept across the Eurasian continent and quickly dug up an unprecedentedly powerful Mongolian and Yuan Empire.The territory of the Mongolian Yuan Empire when it was the most powerful, starting from the Viastu River and the lower Danube River in the west, ending at the Persian Gulf in the south, the West Malayas and the Malay Peninsula, a vast area of ​​more than 30 million square kilometers, with smooth economic and trade and cultural integration, which greatly facilitated the exchanges and cooperation among all ethnic groups in the Eurasian continent. The Mongolian Yuan culture has entered a new situation of mutual integration, development and prosperity in Eurasia.

Twelve, the rise of Mongolian culture in the 13th century was an important stage in the history of human development. The Mongolian whirlwind swept across the Eurasian continent, shocked the whole world and injected new vitality into the development of human culture.

Some people say that the Mongolians in the twelfth century were in a low-level development stage as grassland nomads. Some people say that the Mongolian cavalry could only fight and loot, causing huge damage. This may make some sense. It may reflect the historical facts at that time to a certain extent. But more importantly, the Mongol Empire conquered more than forty large and small princes, dynasties, and priests of all sizes and successfully consolidated and developed hundreds of years. The facts prove that the theory of backwardness and destruction are unfair and objective. I am afraid that it is too far away from the truth of history, and it is a bit outrageous.

Can conquer more than 40 countries without strong national strength? The long-term wandering of social development and the decline of many dynasties and the decline of the principality call for a vital powerful force to appear. The emergence of the Mongol Empire shows that the Mongol leadership group has gathered a group of elite talents and has a relatively harmonious relationship with the many subordinates and people who represent the needs of the development of human civilization.

Genghis Khan, a genius from the Borjijin clan family of the Qiyan tribe of Mongolia, was an outstanding military strategist. In 1182, when he was twenty years old, he was elected as the leader of the tribe and unified the Mongolian tribes in 1206.

As a hero of eternal eternity, Genghis Khan bent his bow and shot the eagle, and he and his descendants fought invincible. In the Far East, the Mongolian storm swept the Song Dynasty, North Korea, and Myanmar. He also attacked Japan and Java in the Middle East and Near East, conquered Persia, defeated the Caliph of Baghdad and Japan, and destroyed the Abassian Dynasty (1258), and then occupied Mesopotamia, Armenia, and Syria in a blitzkrieg from 1237 to 1238. He defeated the principalities of northern Russia, seized Moscow and Kiev in 1240 and attacked Poland and Hungary in two groups. On April 9, 1241, he wiped out the German-Polish coalition forces in Lignitz.

The victory of the three Western Expeditions and the surrender of the corrupt courts from the south made the Yuan Empire reach its peak. Genghis Khan divided the occupied land to four sons. Under the unified Hehan Empire, four Khanate eldest sons Shuchi were established to Qincha, Huashuzimu and Kangli old land. Later, it was called the second son of the second son of the Khanate (also known as the Jin Hordei), Chagatai was enfeoffed in the Western Liao and Uygur lands. It was called the third son of the Chagatai Khanate, Ogedei, and the former land of Naiman. It was called the second son of the fourth son of the Khanate of the Khanate of the Khanate of the Khanate of the Khanate of the Khanate of the Khanate of the Khanate of the Khanate of the Khanate of the Khanate of the Khanate of the Khanate of the Khanate of the Khanate of the Khanate of the Khanate of the Khanate of the Khanate of the Khanate of the Khanate of the Khanate of the Khanate of the Khanate of the Khanate of the Khanate of the Khanate of the Khanate of the Great Skills of the Great Skill of the Great Skill of the Great Skill of the Great Skill of the Great Skill of the Great Skill of the Great Skill of the Great Skill of the Great Skill of the Great Skill of the Great Skill of the Great Skill of the Great Skill of the Ili Khanate (now Baghdad, Iraq), and attacked Misobudamiya and enfeoffed the Ili Khanate of the Kingdom.

The word Genghis also has various explanations. In "Mongol Sources", it says that there are colorful auspicious birds. Every time they fall on the stone in front of Genghis Hehan's tent, they make a sound of Genghis. Therefore, it is called Genghis Khan's "Mongtar Plain" that believes that Genghis is translated as "Tianci". Some scholars also explain it as "Strong" or "King of Kings". In fact, the word Genghis is recorded in Mongolian documents. When it comes to the origin of fire, the word Genghis means that the nature of iron is strong. In the case of human beings, it can be understood as "Strong"

Genghis Khan reigned for 22 years, at the age of 68, and was given the posthumous title of Emperor Fatian Qiyun Shengwu. His third son, Ogedei, was named Emperor Taizong of Yuan Dynasty, reigned for thirteen years.

In 1260 AD, Kublai Khan ascended the throne of the Great Khan in Yuan Shangdu, and founded the country name: The Great Yuan took the Book of Changes. Qianyuan. It is known in history as the Emperor Shizu of Yuan. In his 36th year of reign, Yuan Shizu of Yuan was the fourth son of Genghis Khan, the fourth son of the fourth son of Tuolei. From Genghis Khan to the founding of the Yuan Dynasty, the three generations of ancestors and grandchildren worked hard to govern. This was the prosperous period of the Mongolian Yuan Empire and the prosperity of the Mongolian Yuan culture.

The founding of the Yuan Dynasty, Genghis Khan, made great achievements, and established the "Da Zasa" and established the Huriettai. The system of negotiation and nomination, the system of government orders, such as dictionary, edicts, oaths, etc., rewards and punishments, military and political unification, and great strategies. He achieved great achievements. He used the theory of heaven and loyalty to the emperor as the ideological and cultural basis. He believed in shamanism, won people's hearts, and trained morality.

Emperor Taizong of Yuan Dynasty, Ogedei Khan, posthumously named Emperor English in 1229, located in Kudaran on the Kerren River. "Outline of the History of Mongolian Gold" records: Ogedei Khan first established rituals, and all the royal family members worshipped them; issued a great sasa (the edict); ordered the construction of Confucius Temple and the armillary celestial sphere; inherited the title of Yan Shenggong by Confucius' fifty-first generation grandson; concentrated Hua cowards to clarify the laws; set up granaries, established posters, and overhaul political affairs. The Indian kings and Murai kings all came to pay tribute to the Goryeo Kings to seek peace with their clan sons, and promised them.

Kublai Khan, the ancestor of the Yuan Dynasty, was posthumously named Emperor Shengde Shenwu Wenwu. He reigned for 36 years and was 80 years old to determine the world with his martial arts. He used his literary virtue to achieve peace, established the classics and Chen Ji, and determined the system of a generation.During the vassal period, the Jinlianchuan Shogunate was established, and it attracted many talents from all over the world. Experts gathered in Shangdu’s starry sky and the Buddhists. Liu Bingzhong, a military and political expert who was both knowledgeable in the Tao, wrote Basiba, a Tubo person who was a national teacher with the Red Sect, and formulated the Five House Silk System. Yelu Chucai, who wrote "Journey to the West" in the world, produced statues of the Western Regions, and the Persian Zamaladin, who served as the Sitiantai pointer... Many heroes were used by the Dayuan Empire.

The famous Quanzhen Taoist priest Changchun, Qiu Chuji, went to Central Asia at the invitation of Genghis Khan to preach to Genghis Khan in 1229. When Lu Bulu was sent by King Louis IX of Dharma, he traveled across the Mongolian Plateau and spread the information of friendship between the East and the West of the Nestorians of the Yinshan Wanggu tribe and the East of Western Christianity. He conveyed the gospel to each other, the Italian traveler Marco Polo and his father, and brought a letter from the Pope to the Mongolian emperor.Central Plains culture and Western Regions culture, Asian civilization and European civilization have conducted strong exchanges, great integration, and great integration, which has driven the development and progress of human civilization!

The diversification and prosperity of the Yuan Shangdu culture, also known as Shangjing and Luanjing, is located at the junction of the Central Plains and the northern Mo River. It is the second capital established by the Mongol Empire after the Hassassin and Lin. It is also a famous capital that marks the glory of the Yuan Empire.

After Mongke Khan ascended the throne in 1251, he ordered his younger brother Kublai to take charge of military affairs in the Han area of ​​the south of the desert. In order to manage Xingzhou, Henan, Shaanxi, Guanzhong and other places, Kublai went from north to south to the desert and stationed in Huanzhou and Fuzhou. He recruited famous scholars from all over the world in the impact plains of the upper reaches of the Luan River, and established the Jinlianchuan Shogunate, forming a talent pool of Prime Minister Kublai Khan's Central Plains military affairs and civilized military affairs. The think tank established the kingly idea of ​​advocating cowardly learning, restoring civil governance, and realizing the foundation of peace in the world.

In 1256, Kublai Khan was ordered by the Khan of Mongge to build a castle and a palace in the sun of the Luan River in the north. He was next to Longgang in the north and Luan River in the south. Looking at the Jinlian River, Kaiping City was built in 1259. In 1260, Kublai Khan was promoted to the Khan in Kaiping. Kaiping was promoted to the prefecture and became the Xiadu capital. The Prime Minister's National Government Affairs expanded in 1263. Kaiping Prefecture was officially added to Shangdu. The Shangdu General Administration Office was established. At that time, Peking was called Yànjing. It was changed to Zhongdu in 1264 and eight years later.

The above are the political and cultural centers of the Mongolian Yuan Empire, Kublai Khan's Qianfan period, and was the birthplace of the Yuan Dynasty, the founding of the great cause of the Emperors of the Yuan Dynasty, Kublai Khan succeeded Genghis Khan and Ogedei Khan's great achievements. He conquered the world immediately, ruled his subjects under his horse, and made many achievements in literature and martial arts. He made many achievements in three generations, becoming the heyday of the Mongolian Yuan Empire.

The palace struggles and bloody conflicts such as the palace struggles and bloody conflicts of Shangdu ascended the throne of the Great Khan in the middle of the Yuan Dynasty have proved Shangdu's extremely important political, military and cultural status.

The vast territory and stable development of the Yuan Empire greatly facilitated the prosperity of multiculturalism and the political, economic and cultural exchanges with countries around the world.

Shangdu has a profound influence in the history of Sino-foreign exchanges. Many foreign envoys, missionary land, merchants, tourists, etc. were received by the Emperor of the Yuan Dynasty and established and developed friendly relations. Wang Yun's "Zhongtang Events" records that in the second year of Zhongtong (126t), the envoys of the Falang Kingdom (Europe) went to Kaiping to see Kublai Khan, offering flowers and clothes... Shangxiong praised him for coming from afar, and gave gold and silk very generously. In the same year, the King of Goryeo Wang Zhi also sent a prince to lead the Goryeo Governor Li Zangyong and other 18 people to Huiping Pangde in the fourth year of Pangde (1300). Ashange, the leader of Muliancheng of the Burmese Kingdom, sent his younger brother Su to lead a mission of 91 people to China. In the second year of Su Zhizheng (1342), the envoy of the Pope Malinoli and his party arrived at Shangdu and were summoned by Emperor Shun of the Yuan Dynasty in Ciren Hall.

Shangdu often has merchants such as Alasi, Persian, and Turkic, and are called Semu merchants or Hui merchants. The Italian Venetian merchant Nicots brought Marco and Polo to China. Shangdu was treated with extremely high courtesy by Kublai Khan. Marco Polo lived in China for 17 years and was highly valued by Kublai Khan. The famous "Marco Polo Travels" records the palaces, temples, court etiquette, and customs of Shangdu in detail. It introduced Shangdu to the world and let the world understand China.

Foreign scientists also came to Shangdu to work, promoting the exchange and development of scientific and cultural exchanges and development between China and foreign countries. Persian scientist Zamaladin was appointed by Mengge Khan to build an observatory. In the eighth year of Zhiyuan (1271), Shangdu Huihui Observatory was officially established (also known as the Beisi Observatory). Kublai Khan gave the title of Zamasid as a highlight. He developed a variety of large astronomical instruments for the first astronomical director appointed by the Yuan Dynasty, and formulated a perpetual calendar. Feng Tianzhang, who was once the young supervisor of the Beisi Observatory, and Guo Shoujing, a famous scientist, was influenced by Zamasid.

Shangdu City has many Buddhist temples, Taoist palaces, Huihui temples and Confucian temples, except for Mongolian shamanism, Buddhism, Taoism, Islam and Christianity are all very active.The two famous debates on Buddhism and Taoism have had far-reaching influence on the debate between Buddhism and Taoism, and the court ordered the debate to organize the analysis.The two families made an appointment: if the Tao wins, the monks will be the head of the head, and if the monks wins, the Tao cuts their hair and becomes the monk for the first time. In 1255, in Hasshelin, Mobei, the elder of the Shaolin Temple, Fuyu, refuted the leader of the Quanzhen Sect, Li Zhichang, for the second time. In 1258, Mongge commissioned Kublai Khan to convene representative figures of the Han Buddhist and Taoist religions in Kaiping for the second debate. More than 300 Buddhist monks, more than 200 Taoist priests, more than 200 great officials and confucian scholars, Ban Miheng, a Tubo (Tubo) native, Basiba, as the imperial teacher who commanded Buddhism and Kashmir monk Namo and other religious leaders also participated in the debate. They expressed their opinions, and they contended for different ideas and cultures, causing a sensation in the court.

Because Shangdu is the political and cultural center of the Mongolian Yuan Dynasty and has a wide and profound influence in the world, it is popular in various languages ​​and characters. The characters include the Uyghu and Basi Pah Xin characters, Chinese, Tibetan and Yisitifei (Ancient Iranian Persian)

Confucius Temple, Basiba Dishi Temple has a high status and a cowardly science, Mongolian philology, medicine, and astronomy are all very prosperous

In 1260, the ancestor of the Yuan Dynasty, Kublai Khan ascended the throne in Shangdu, he made a great edict to ascend the throne, and to the rule of civilization.Only my ancestors created a district, and there were many directions, and martial arts were flourishing, and there were many cultural governance. It has been here for more than fifty years.In the second year of Zhongtong (1261), Emperor Shizu issued an edict to the whole country, including Xuansheng Temple and Guannei Academy, and there were officials and sacrifices.The first day of the moon was released, and the military and horses of officials and envoys were prohibited from invading and blaspheming, and those who violated the crime were punished. In the fourth year of Zhiyuan (1267), huge sums of money were allocated to rebuild the Confucius Temple in the second year of Zhishun (1331) and the second year of Zhiyuan (1336) twice issued edicts to give monuments to Shangdu Confucius Temple.

If there is a temple, there is a Confucius Temple to be respected, and Confucianism also widely spreads the three major traditions of Chinese culture: cowardice, Taoism, and Buddhism have developed the core of the idea of ​​cowards: benevolence, benevolence and advocacy of morality.Taoism regards nature as the law, Tao follows nature, advocates the naturalism of inaction, advocates the unity of man and nature, Buddhism observes life from the coordinates of liberation, believes in the value judgment of impermanence and suffering, and provides people with the spirit of liberation methods and ways to rely on Confucianism to govern the world, Taoism governs the body, Buddhism governs the heart, Confucian world, Taoism hides the world, and Buddhism is born.The three schools are integrated in the following three aspects: First, the concern about the value of human life, and second, the pursuit of the lofty realm of life, and third, the emphasis on the cultivation of Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism in-depth interpretations of various religions and theories in the East and the West, and the extensive development of the diversity and prosperity of Mongolian and Yuan culture.

Chinese culture has a long history of more than 5,000 years. It has significant characteristics in the Mongolian Yuan Dynasty. This is consistent with the vast territory that connects Europe and Asia, the cultural vision and the unification of many ethnic groups. Such historical conditions are unprecedented. In fact, Chinese culture is formed by constantly absorbing the culture of all ethnic groups and regions.

What attracted the attention of the world is that in the nearly 100 years of development of the Yuan Dynasty, culture and art, especially Yuan opera, reached a very high level. Yuan Zaju has widely absorbed the development achievements of a variety of lyrics, music and skills based on the Jinyuan version and the Zhugong tunes, and reached a prosperous stage. In the history of Chinese culture, it is comparable to Tang poetry and Song lyrics. The famous writers Guan Hanqing, Wang Shifu, Ma Zhiyuan, Zheng Guangzu, Bai Pu and others have become famous people who have been famous throughout the ages, such as Dou E's Injustice and "The West Chamber", and have outstanding achievements in drama and literature, which have had a profound impact on the development of opera. There are about 150 remaining works by Yuan Zaju, which have become treasures of human drama and literature.

Poetry, calligraphy and painting have also developed at a high level, and a group of calligraphy, painting and poetry masters have emerged. Zhao Meng, a master of calligraphy, inherited Wang Xizhi's round and beautiful style, and is known as the Zhao style poetry and painting, and many of them have passed down from generation to generation. It is a famous poet and poet critic, Mongolian Yuan culture is an important stage of the prosperity and development of Chinese culture. It occupies a significant position in the great Chinese culture. During the Mongolian Yuan Dynasty, the vast territory of China spans Europe and Asia and the unified situation of many ethnic groups. The development of culture has unprecedented depth and broad connotations. Different cultures of various ethnic groups in China. Mongolian local culture and Central Plains culture, Eastern culture and Western culture, great intersection and great integration, and has unprecedented development and improvement. Time and space are all the capitals of the Yuan Dynasty and the birthplace of the Mongolian Khan. Compared with the majority, the upper city regards the former land of the Mongolians.Compared with Dadu, as the political and cultural center of the Mongolian Yuan period, Shangdu culture has more of the true nature of Mongolian culture. It has more shamanism, grandson banquet, horse milk banquet, white feather bird singing and dancing, tea and peony tasting and other grassland characteristics.

When Kublai Khan was in Qianfan, he established the shogunate in Jinlianchuan, where Shangdu was located, and made preparations for the establishment of the Yuan Dynasty, including thoughts, culture, theory, talent, etc., from the 36-year-old general, military and national affairs in the Han area in the south of the desert, and worked hard for ten years. At the age of 46 (1260), he ascended the throne of the Great Khan in Shangdu, and controlled the capital in the northwest, the Liaohai Sea, and the south, and the situation was particularly important than that of Dadu.(Volume 10 of "Ancient Records of Taoist Chinese Studies") Shangdu is close to the political and military center of the former Mongolian Khanate, and is an important hub for communicating between the north and west and west. He controls the Mongolian clan and nobles in the north and north of the Mobei. He occupies an important position in politics and military. He also culturally becomes the junction of Mongolian local culture and Central Plains culture. He is a place where Mongolian grassland culture is integrated with Han farming culture, Western Regions culture and Central Plains culture are the indisputable political and cultural center in the Mongolian Yuan period. Therefore, Shangdu culture is a concentrated embodiment of the Yuan Dynasty culture and a high development of Mongolian culture. It absorbs the beneficial components of many cultures and reaches a historic height. As the mainstream culture of the Yuan Dynasty has had a profound impact on the development of society and history. As a world power, it also has a significant impact on the development of the world's cultural development and human civilization.

The provincial system of the Zhengzhong Secretariat Province is the highest local administrative agency of the Yuan Dynasty, and is a first-level political region named "Zhengzhou", or only known as the Provincial Yuan Dynasty as the Prime Minister of the Secretariat Province, also known as the Ministry of State Administration. Because the Yuan Dynasty has a vast territory, in addition to the Fuli area directly under the Secretariat Province and the Tubo area is under the jurisdiction of Xuanzhengyuan, ten Zhengzhong Secretariat Provinces were established in various important cities, in order to be in charge of various regions in Shizu. During the three short-term periods of the Wuzong Dynasty, the Shangsariat Province was also renamed the Shangsariat Province and the Yuan people called it the system: the capital province seized the opportunity of the world, and the ten provincial governments divided the world's governance.

The origin of the provincial system was the Taipei dynasty of the Wei and Jin Dynasties. In the Sui and early Tang dynasties, both established Xingtai (or called Xingtai Shangshu Province) in other provinces to exercise the power of Shangshu Province, and also established Shangshu Ling, Pushe, Shangshu, Cheng, Lang and other officials, but they did not have to be prepared. If the person in charge has high power, it is said that the Daxingtai was mostly a temporary organization set up for military needs. Emperor Taizong of Tang later abolished this establishment of Jin Dynasty. He established Xingtai Shangshu Province in Bianjing to govern Henan. Later, he abolished the Jin Dynasty during the reign of the Jin Dynasty (1190-1208), and sent the Minister of the Shangshu Province to go to war, guard the border or handle major local affairs, and allowed him to act cheaply. He said that the Provincial Department was at a certain end of the Jin Dynasty. In order to resist Mongolia and suppress the peasant uprising, he often ordered the Minister to go out to control all the roads, or to use it as a slaughter.The title of prime minister was awarded to the local chief, all of which were called provinces. They successively established Daming, Hebei, Shaanxi, Hedong, Zhongdu, Shandong, Dongping, Liaodong, Shangjing, Yidu, Jingdong and other provinces. At the same time, the Jin land occupied by Mongolia was mostly entrusted with the surrendered Jin Dynasty officials or local warlords, and imitated the title of Suiyi De. Those who have a large jurisdiction were also awarded provincials, such as Shima Ming'an, Shima Xiande, and father-son, and Yan Shi was the province of Shandong East Road (or Dongping Platform), Zhang Rong was the province of Shandong (or Jinan Road), Li Quan was the province of Huainan, Shandong (or Yidu Road), etc., but they did not hold the title of prime minister, which was different from the provinces of the Jin Dynasty, and later, this type of provincial title was gradually abolished.

After the Mongolian destroyed the Jin Dynasty, the Zhongzhou officials were appointed to command the civil affairs of the Central Plains. They established an official in Beijing. At that time, they were called the Shangshu Province of Jingxing, or the Shangshu Province of Jingxing. The Zhongdu Xing also established similar ruling institutions. After Mengge ascended the throne, they reaped the chief executives of the above three major regions directly under the jurisdiction of the Khan. They were called the Shangshu Province of Jing and other places. The Biebali and other places and the Shangshu Province of Amuhe and other places. At that time, the Mongolian Khan government had not yet established the Shangshu Province of the Shangshu Province, but they were just to govern the political and criminal affairs of the Central Plains. The officials of the Central Plains who divided the major areas were commonly called provincial provinces, not custom-made by Mongolia. For example, the Yongshu Province of Jingxing, Buzhier, Mongolia's official title was actually Dadu (should be Zhongdu) and Zaluhuchi.

The provinces of the Yuan Dynasty established the first year of Zhongtong (1260) of the Yuan Dynasty. They followed the Han law and established the General Secretary of the Secretariat to take charge of national government affairs. They first appointed the Prime Minister and the Left Chief, Right Chief, and the Chief Secretary of the Ministry of Justice, and then successively established the Zhengshu Province in major regions. The system of the previous dynasty was still used. The Chief Secretary of the Secretariat was the first to lead the provinces. After the Central Secretariat was carried out, such provinces had actually become permanent local administrative agencies. Unlike the temporary detachment agencies established by the previous dynasty, if the provincial officials were still The title of Prime Minister of the Secretariat was no different from the authority of the Secretariat. He thought it was heavy from the outside, so he changed the official system and only called a certain provincial official. He no longer took the title of Prime Minister of the Secretariat in the 23rd year of Zhiyuan (1286), and the officials of the provinces were appointed, the provincial, provincial, provincial, provincial officials, and ministers. He dismissed the prime ministers in each province, and only appointed Pingzhang as the highest official. In order to distinguish it from the capital, some provinces, which were very important, the prime ministers were appointed Yanyou in the seventh year (1320), and the prime ministers in each province were dismissed. Those who had already been appointed were demoted to Pingzhang as the highest official.

After Taiding (1324-1328), some provinces had prime ministers, and depending on the needs and the status of the person in charge, each province generally had two members of Pingzhang (first rank), one member of the right prime minister and one member of the left prime minister (second rank), two members of the chief minister (second rank), and two members of the chief minister (second rank), and the chief minister (second rank), and the chief minister was the same as the provincial officials of the capital; the left rank and the right rank were combined into one, and the ranks were set up, the chief minister, and the chief minister, and the ranks were all lower than the end of the Yuan Dynasty of the capital, and some provinces also had additionalPingzhang, Right Chief, Left Chief, Political Consultative Office and other officials in charge of the province's jurisdiction of money, grain, military, military, military, farming, grain transportation and other important military affairs, leading roads, prefectures, prefectures, and counties; far away from the provincial capital, the Xuanwei Office was established, as the dispatching agency of the province, and the provinces were established and governed by the provinces as follows: ① In the first year of Zhongtong, Shaanxi Province, Qinshu Province (also known as Shaanxi Province, Shaanxi Province, Shaanxi Province, etc.), and Jingzhao (now Shaanxi ProvinceXixi'an), then moved to Xingyuan (now Hanzhong, Shaanxi); in the eighth year of Zhiyuan, the Zhili Zhongshu Province was appointed as the King of Anxi the following year, and Jingzhao was appointed as the King of Anxi, and Jingzhao was appointed as the territory of the king and prime minister's office for the 17th year of rule. Binge was killed, and the King's office was abolished, and the Shaanxi Sichuan Province was renamed in Jingzhao. In the 18th year, the Sichuan Province was established, so it was only called the jurisdiction of Shaanxi Province including today's Shaanxi and Gansu, and some areas of Inner Mongolia.

② In the second year of Zhongtong, Gansu Province, established the Xixia Zhongxing Province, and governed Zhongxing Prefecture (now Yinchuan, Ningxia). In the third year of Zhiyuan, the Xuanwei Office was renamed, and the eighth year of Zhongshu Province was renamed. In the tenth year, the eighth year of the year of Zhongshu Province was renamed. In the next year, the province was divided into Ganzhou (now Zhangye, Gansu Province), called Ganzhou Province. In the twenty-third year of the 22nd year, the Zhongxing Province of Xixia was moved to Ganzhou to govern Ganzhou, and was renamed Gansu Province, including Gansu Province, Ningxia Autonomous Region and some areas of Inner Mongolia.

③ In the first year of Zhiyuan, Liaoyang Province was established in Beijing (now west of Ningcheng, Inner Mongolia), called Beijing Province; in the second year, Xuanwei Office was renamed, and in the sixth year of the Secretariat, he was appointed in Tokyo (later changed to Liaoyang, now belonging to Liaoning Province), called Tokyo Province. Later, he moved to Beijing for 15 years, and then changed to Xuanwei Office in the 23rd year. The position of the kings in the northeast was light, and the position of Xuanwei Office was not enough to be governed. The Tokyo Province was established again. In the same year, the Yan rebellion, the Liaoyang Province was relocated to control the jurisdiction of the northeast prefectures and counties, including the current Liaoning, Jilin, Heilongjiang Province, and the area north of Heilongjiang and the area east of the Ussuri River.

④ In the fifth year of Zhiyuan, due to the need to attack the Song Dynasty, Henan Province was established for ten years, Jinghu, and Huaixi Privy Councils were divided into two groups, and the provinces were abolished. Henan Road was still directly under the 28th year of the Secretariat, Henan Province was established, and the jurisdiction of Jiangbei Prefectures and Counties under the Jianghuai Province, including the area north of the Yangtze River in Henan Province, Hubei, Anhui and Jiangsu Province.

⑤ In the eighth year of Zhiyuan, Sichuan Province in Shaanxi Province was abolished, and Sichuan Province was established in Chengdu; in the tenth year, the east was divided into the 15th year of the Xichuan Privy Council, the two courtyards were abolished, and the provinces were re-established. The following year, the eighteenth year of the following year, it was separated from the Sichuan Province in Shaanxi Province, and then established a province in Chengdu. In the 23rd year, the two provinces were divided into two provinces and moved to Chongqing in 25th year. In the 27th year, the jurisdiction of Chengdu included most of the current Sichuan Province and Hunan, and some areas of Shaanxi Province were also re-established.

⑥ In the tenth year of Zhiyuan, Yunnan Province destroyed the Dali Kingdom and ruled Zhongqing (now Kunming, Yunnan) the jurisdiction included the entire Yunnan Province, Sichuan, Guangxi, and Thailand, some places in northern Myanmar. ⑦ Huguang Province, the 11th year of Zhiyuan, was initially established in Ezhou (now Wuchang, Hubei). The following year, the Yuan army took the Jinghu Province and established the province in Jiangling to govern it. It was called the Jingnan Province for the 14th year of Jingnan Province, and moved to Tanzhou (now Changsha, Hunan), called Tanzhou Province or Hunan Province in the same year. Ezhou Province was merged into Tanzhou and obtained the new Guangxi area. Therefore, it was also called Huguang Province in the 18th year, and moved to Ezhou Province, including most of the three provinces in today's Hunan, Guizhou, and Guangxi and some parts of Hubei.

⑧ In the 13th year of Zhiyuan, Jiangsu and Zhejiang Province destroyed the Southern Song Dynasty, established the Jianghuai Province in Yangzhou, unified the Lianghuai Province, also known as the Huaidong Province, Yangzhou Province in the 21st year, moved to the provincial capital in Hangzhou, called the Jiangsu and Zhejiang Province in the 23rd year, and was also governed by Yangzhou, and was renamed the Jianghuai Province in the 26th year, and moved to the Hangzhou Province again for the 28th year, and renamed the Jiangbei Prefectures and County in Henan Province, renamed the Jiangsu and Zhejiang Province in the 3rd year of Dade (1299), and abolished Fujian Province, which was under the jurisdiction of Jiangsu and Zhejiang Province, including the current southern Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Fujian Province and some parts of Jiangxi Province.

⑨ The Jiangxi Province was established in the 14th year of Zhiyuan, and was governed by Longxing (now Nanchang, Jiangxi), also known as the 15th year of Longxing Province, and was incorporated into the newly established Fujian Province (at Quanzhou). In the same year, it was established in Ganzhou. The following year, it was still under the jurisdiction of Longxing. After the reduction of the redundant officials in Jiangnan, Jiangxi and Fujian provinces had several times been divided into Dade in the third year of Dade. Fujian was merged into Jiangsu and Zhejiang. Jiangxi was a province with a jurisdiction including most of Jiangxi Province and Guangdong Province.

⑩ Dade of Lingbei Province established Helin Province in the 11th year. In the first year of Emperor Huangqing in Helin (1312), Helin Province was changed to Lingbei Province, Helin was renamed Hening, and it is still a provincial jurisdiction including the entire territory of the Mongolian People's Republic, Inner Mongolia, China, part of Xinjiang and the Soviet Union (now in Russia) Siberia.

In addition, the Yuan Dynasty also established an expedition to the East Province in Goryeo, but the prime minister of the province was also appointed by the King of Goryeo and was appointed as the official subordinate. The original political institutions and systems of the Goryeo Kingdom did not change, and the wealth did not enter the capital. The nature of the provinces in the Yuan Dynasty was different from the above-mentioned provinces that ruled various regions, the Yuan Dynasty also established several provinces that were mainly engaged in major conquests. One was established during the Song Dynasty, and it was only called the Xingzhongshu Province., not a place name; one was established when using troops abroad, and was the name of the country conquered, such as the Japanese province, Jiaozhi province (Annan province), Myanmar Central Province (Myanmar Province), Chameng Province, etc., and another is to authorize a certain province to be responsible for conquering a certain country's military, name the name of the province and the name of the country conquered. For example, the Jinghu Chameng Province, these were temporary constructions. After the peasant uprising broke out at the end of the Yuan Dynasty, the Yuan Dynasty government successively suppressed and resisted the peasant army, in Jining (now Juye, Shandong), Zhangde (now Anyang, Henan), Jining (now Taiyuan, Shanxi), Baoding, Zhending (now Zhengding, Hebei), in order to suppress and resist the peasant army, the Yuan Dynasty government successively in Jining (now Juye, Shandong), Zhangde (now Anyang, Henan), Jining (now Taiyuan, Shanxi), Baoding, and Zhending (now Zhengding, Hebei),The Zhongshu provinces were established in Datong and other places, and successively established the Huainan Jiangbei Province (in Yangzhou in the 12th year of Zhizheng), Fujian Province (in Fuzhou in the 16th year of Zhizheng, and later Quanzhou and Jianning), Shandong Province (in the 17th year of Zhizheng), Guangxi Province (in the 23rd year of Zhizheng) and Fujian Jiangxi Province (in the 26th year of Zhizheng). The peasant uprising army also imitated the Yuan system to establish provinces as local administrative agencies, such as the Jiangnan Province of the Tianwan regime, Bianliang Province, Longshu Province, Jiangxi Province, Song Dynasty Province, Yidu Province, and Jiangxi Province, Huguang Province, Jianghuai Province, Jiangsu and Zhejiang Province established by Zhu Yuanzhang.

The establishment of the provincial system in the Yuan Dynasty was a major change in China's administrative system. After the Ming Dynasty destroyed the Yuan Dynasty, it changed the provincial to the provincial government to the Ministry of Education. However, it is still called the provincial government, which is generally referred to as the provincial government. It has been used to the modern era.

In the late Yuan Dynasty, the rulers continued to collect various complex taxes from the people, and the people were oppressed and plundered even more serious as early as the second year of Taiding (1325), and the uprising led by Guo Pusa, led by the Red Turban Army, led by Liu Futong, led by Emperor Shunzheng (1351). At the same time, the ruling class of the Yuan Dynasty was still fighting for power and profit, which accelerated the process of demise of the Yuan Dynasty in the 16th year of Zhizheng (1356) to the 19th year of Zhizheng (1359), Zhu Yuanzhang, the leader of the rebel army, continued to expand his life.His own power unified half of the Yangtze River in the south of the Yangtze River in the 27th year of Zhizheng (1367), Zhu Yuanzhang began the northern expedition. With the assistance of generals Xu Da, Chang Yuchun and others, he captured Yuan Dadu in August 1368. Emperor Shun of Yuan fled north. In the same year, Zhu Yuanzhang became emperor in Yingtian (now Nanjing). After establishing the Ming Dynasty, the remnants of Yuan Dynasty were said to be the Northern Yuan Dynasty. After Emperor Tianguang was attacked by Yesudier, descendant of Alibuge in 1388 (some say that after Gui Lichi ascended the throne in 1402), the imperial bloodline has been passed down in Mongolia.

Chronology of the Emperor of Yuan Dynasty, the temple name posthumous title Khan during the Great Mongolian period, the rule time of the year Taizu Fatian Qiyun Shengwu Emperor Genghis Khan Borjijin Temujin 1206 Wave 1227 Wu Ruizong (Yuan Shizu chased the emperor) The regent of the country Jingxiang Emperor can also be Yan Borjijin Tolei Regent 1227 Wave 1229 Wave 1229 English Emperor Ogede Khan Borjijin Ogede 1229 Wave 1241 Wave 1241 Unprofessional Empress Zhaoci Na Ma Zhen Tulegona Regent 1241 Wave 1241 Wave 1246 Wuding Zong Jianping Emperor Guiyou Khan BoErzhijingui was made from the wavy in 1246. The wavy in 1248. The wavy in 1248. The wavy in 1248. The wavy in 1251. The wavy in 1251. The wavy in 1251. The wavy in 1251. The wavy in 1259. The wavy in 1271. The wavy in 1368. The ruling time was the ruling time of the 12th year of the 12th year of the 12th year of the 12th year of the 12th year of the 12th year of the 12th year of the 12th year of the 12th year of the 12th year of the 12th year of the 12th year of the 12th year of the 12th year of the 12th year of the 12th year of the 12th year of the 12th year of the 12th year of the 12th year of the 12th year of the 12th year of the 12th year of the 12th year of the 12th year of the 12th year of the 12th year of the 12th year of the 12th year of the 12th year of the 12th year of the 12th year of the 12th year of the 12th year of the 12th year of the 12th year of the 12th year of the 12th year of the 12th year of the 12th year of the 12th year of the 12th year of the 12th year of the 12th year of the 12th year of the 12th year of the 12th year of the 12th year of the 12th year of the 12th year of the 12th year of the 12th year of the 12th year of

Emperor Qinming of Emperor Chengzong of the Ming Dynasty, Wanze Dukhan, Borjijin Tiemur, 1295, Waves 1307 (Yuanzhen, 1295, Waves 1297, Dade, 1297, Waves 1307)

Emperor Renhui Xuanxiao of Wuzong Qulukhan Borjijin Haishan 1308 Waves from 1311 to Emperor Shengwen Qinxiao of Darenzong Puyan Dukhan Borjijin Aiyulibada in 1312 Waves from 1320 (Huangqing 1312 Waves from 1313 Yanyou 1314 Waves from 1320)

Emperor Ruisheng Wenxiao, Gejiankhan, Boerjijin, Shuodbala, 1321, wavy, 1323, 1323, 133, 133, 133, 133, 133, 1334, 1338, 1338, 1332, 1332, 1332, 1330, 1330, 1330, 1332, 1332, 132, 1328, 1330, 1330, 132, 1329, 1329, 1329, 1332, 1322, 1328, 1330, 1330, 1332, 1322, 1328, 1330, 1330, 1329, 1329, 1322, 1322, 1328, 1330, 1330, 1320, 1320, 1332, 1322, 1328, 1330, 1332, 1320, 1332, 1320, 1332, 1320, 1332, 1320, 1332, 1320, 1332, 1320, 1332, 1320, 1332, 1320, 1332, 1320, 1332, 1320, 1332, 1320, 1332, 1320, 1332, 1320, 1332, 1320, 1332, 1320, 1332, 1320,In 1330, the waves of Emperor Mingzong Yixian, Emperor Jingxiao, Silakuttu Borjijin and Shiqin, 1329, the Emperor Ningzong Chongsheng, Emperor Yilinqibao Borjijin, Yilinzhiban, 1332, Emperor Shunhuizong, Emperor Shuntu, Tugan Tiemuer, Boerjijin, Tuhuan, Tiemuer, 1333, the waves of Emperor Shunhui, 1340, the waves of Emperor Shunhui, 1341, the waves of Emperor Shun, 1370, the waves of Emperor Shun, 1333, the waves of Emperor Shun, 1333, the waves of Emperor Shun, 1333, the waves of Emperor Shun, 1335, the waves of Emperor Zhizheng, 1341, the waves of Emperor Shun, 1370, the waves of Emperor Zhizheng, 1341, the waves of Emperor Shun, 1370, the waves of Emperor Zhizheng, 1341, the waves of Emperor Shun, 1370, the waves of Emperor Zhizheng, 1333)

3. Northern Yuan Dynasty (after the demise of the Yuan Dynasty in 1368) period (1368 Waves ended in the 14th century or early 15th century)

Temple name Posthumous name Khan Name Reign Time Year name Huizong Shundi Tugan Tiemur Boerjijin Tuhuan Tiemur 1368 Waves 1370 1370 1341 Waves 1370 Zhaozong Hexiao Emperor Xiao Diliketu Khan Borjijin Aiyushirita 1370 1370 1370 1370 1370 1370 1370 1370 1370 1370 1378 Emperor Ningxiao Emperor Ningxiao Emperor Usakha Khan Borjijin Tugus Tiemur 1378 Waves 1388 After the fall of the Yuan Dynasty in Tianguang, the royal bloodline has been passed down from generation to generation in Mongolia until Mongolia was conquered by the Qing Dynasty in 1697